Words in Transition

Infinitives and gerunds are verbals, words formed from verbs. Verbals can function in a sentence as nouns, adjectives, or clauses. Infinitives and gerunds can both be used as nouns and, therefore, can follow main verbs as direct objects. Some main verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund. However, some must be followed by an infinitive and others must be followed by a gerund.

The following six rules list common verbs and phrases associated with each of these verbals. They also give help in correctly using infinitives and gerunds as objects.

1. Use an infinitive with to after these common verbs:
   

   agree	come	have	mean	refuse
   arrange	decide	hope	offer	wait
   bed	deserve	intend	plan	want
   claim	expect	manage	promise	wish

   Keith refused participating in the discussion. [to participate]

2. Learn which verbs are followed by a noun or pronoun object and an infinitive with to. Some verbs are followed by two objects-a noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb and then the infinitive. The following verbs have a noun or pronoun object as well as an infinitive object:
   

   advise	convince	invite	persuade	tell
   allow	forbid	order	remind	urge
   cause	instruct	permit	require	warm

   We persuaded_^to come with us. [our neighbors]

   The Embassy invited_^to attend a reception in the Princess’s honor. [us]

   The following verbs may either take a noun or pronoun object or be followed directly by an infinitive:

   allow *	cause	force	help	want
   ask	expect	get	need	would like

   I would like dessert.

   I would like it.

   I would like to go.

   Exception: When allow does not have a noun or pronoun object, it is followed by a gerund.

   Many companies no longer allow smoking on their premises.

3. Use let, make, and have correctly.
1. When let means “allow,” make means “force,” and have means “cause,” they are followed by a noun or pronoun object (0) and the infinitive without to.
1. Customs officials let Martha pass through without inspecting her luggage. [O]
2. They did not make her show them her briefcase, either. [O]
3. Tom had the barber cut his hair much shorter this time. [O]
4. Use a gerund after the following verbs:
   

   admit	delay	imagine	practice	risk
   allow *	deny	keep	prevent	stop
   appreciate	discuss	mind	regret	suggest
   avoid	enjoy	miss	remember	tolerate
   consider	finish	postpone	resist

   I enjoyed to meet your family. [meeting]

   The government no longer allows to smoke in government offices. [smoking]

   *Note: Allow is followed by an infinitive when it has a noun or pronoun object.

   I don’t allow anyone smoking in the house. [to smoke]

5. Use a gerund after certain verbs plus a preposition. The following phrases are frequently followed by gerunds:
   

   accuse someone of	be responsible for	feel like
   apologize to	be tired of	insist on
   approve of	be used to	look forward to
   be afraid of	believe in	object to
   be capable of	depend on	talk about
   be interested in	dream of	think about

   Sue is responsible for preparing the financial data.

6. Use either an infinitive or a gerund after the following verbs:
   

   begin *	hate	love	start *
   continue	like	prefer

   The store cannot continue to raise prices.

   The store cannot continue raising prices.

   Note: When begin and start are used in the progressive tenses, they can only be followed by an infinitive.

   Lani is beginning_^enjoying her dance class. [to enjoy]

   After some verbs, such as remember, stop, and try, the infinitive and the gerund have different meanings.

   Sid remembers going to the bank on Friday.

   [Sid remembers that he went to the bank last Friday.]

   Sid remembers to go to the bank on Friday.

   [He remembers to go to the bank every Friday.]

Two-word verbs consist of a main verb plus a particle (a preposition or adverb). Note that the particle changes the meaning of a verb completely.

let down [disappoint]

let out [free]

These combinations of verb + particle are idiomatic; that is, the separate meanings of the verb and the particle do not predict their meaning when they are combined into a two-word verb.

Like other verbs, two-word verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

Transitive come across [find], let down [disappoint], tell off [rebuke]

Intransitive catch on [understand], crop up [occur], give in [yield]

Transitive two-word verbs are either inseparable or separable. The verb and particle of inseparable two-word verbs are never separated by the direct object. However, the verb and particle of separable two-word verbs are sometimes separated by the direct object. There is no way of telling which two-word verbs are inseparable and which are separable except by noting how a writer handles the object of these verbs. You must, therefore, note this distinction when you learn each new two-word verb.

Follow these four rules in placing the direct object of transitive two-word verbs.

1. Do not separate the verb and particle of inseparable two-word verbs. Place the noun or pronoun after the particle.Lucy does not take after her older sister. [DO]

   Lucy does not take after her. [DO]

2. When the object of a separable two-word verb is a noun, place it either between the main verb and the particle or after the particle.We turned the offer down. [DO]

   We turned down the offer. [DO]

3. When the object of a separable two-word verb is a pronoun, place the object only between the verb and the particle.We turned it down because it came too late. [DO]
4. Learn some common separable and inseparable transitive two-word verbs.
   

   Separable

   fill out an application/fill it out
   give up smoking/give it up
   look up some words/look them up
   put out a fire/ put it out
   tear down a house / tear one down
   throw away the paper / throw it away
   try on some clothes / try some on
   turn down the TV / turn it down
   turn up the volume/turn it up

   Inseparable

   call on a student/ call on her
   come across an article / come across it
   get over a cold/get over it
   hear from an old friend/hear from him
   look after his mother / look after her
   look through an encyclopedia/look through it
   pick on someone smaller / pick on someone
   run into a neighbour / run into her
   take after a grandparent/ take after him

The passive voice of a verb (V) consists of a form of be (am, is, are, was, were, being, be, or been) plus the past participle of the main verb. In a sentence in the passive voice, the subject (S) receives the action; it does not do the action.

Diamonds and gold are mined in South Africa. [S] [V]

Keep the following three points in mind to form the passive voice correctly.

1. Use the past participle, not the base form or past tense, to form the passive voice.Pay particular attention to past participles of irregular verbs.A lot of electronic parts are manufacture in Southeast Asia. [manufactured]

   In my family, clothing was wore by all three children and then gave to the church. [worn] [given]

2. Identify the subject and make sure the helping verb be agrees with it. The sea otter, an endangered species, are native to the Pacific coast. [is][The subject, sea otter, is singular, even though the appositive, species, sounds plural.]
3. Use only transitive verbs in the passive voice. A transitive verb, unlike an intransitive one, always takes a direct object (DO).TransitiveJacques Villeneuve drove the car to victory in the Indy 500. [S] [V] [DO]

   [The direct object, car, receives the action of the verb drove.]

   Intransitive

   Sylvia seems forgetful lately. [V]

   [The verb seems has no direct object. Forgetful is a predicate adjective that describes the subject, Sylvia.]

   In the passive voice, the object of the action becomes the grammatical subject of the sentence.

   The car was driven to victory in the Indy 500 by Jacques Villeneuve. [S] [V]

   Since intransitive verbs have no direct object, you cannot form the passive voice with them. If you are not sure whether a verb is transitive, check your dictionary.

Form the Prefect Tenses Correctly

The perfect tenses of a verb are created by combining a form of have with the past participle of the main verb. (Read about the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses)

Present Prefect

Luis has grown fast this year.

Past Prefect

We already had started dinner when the Smiths arrived.

Future Prefect

Wang will have finished her speech by 8 p.m.

When you use the perfect tenses, remember these two points about the helping verb and the main verb.

1. Make sure the present tense of the helping verb have agrees with its subject.
   • Richard have been a member of the Young Liberals Club for ten years. [has]
   • They has elected her president three times. [have]
2. Use the past participle, not the past tense, to form the perfect tenses.
   • Review the list of the principal parts of verbs.
   • Marie has broke several world records for speed skating. [broken]
   • When I met Harold, he had already began growing bald. [begun]

Form and Use the Progressive Tenses Correctly

The progressive tenses consist of a form of the helping verb be (am, is, are, was, were, being, be, or been) plus the present participle of the main verb.

Present Progressive

Haroon is building a new house.

Past Progressive

Sheila was washing her hair at midnight.

Future Progressive

We will be traveling to Alberta soon.

Some verbs, such as linking verbs, are typically not used in the progressive. The following four points will help you form the progressive tenses correctly and identify verbs not used in the progressive.

1. Use a form of be with the progressive.
   • Kate _^ working in the lab all afternoon today. [is]
   • Several of us _^ working on the same project. [are]
2. Make sure the helping verb be agrees with its subject.
   • The librarians was helping Teresa find books for her report. [were]
   • The number of work-study scholarships are increasing. [is]
   • (Review subject-verb agreement in EDIT 1.)
3. Use the helping verb have in the present perfect progressive.
   • Ari _^ been cooking all day for the party. [has]
   • Elliot and Craig _^ been restoring an old Chevy on weekends. [have]
4. Learn which verbs are usually not used in the progressive.
   • Certain verbs are typically not used in the progressive tenses. These verbs fall into the following categories:
   • Linking Verbs and Verbs that indicate qualities or states of being [appear, be, become, have, seem]
     • Cheng was seeming sick all morning. [seemed]
   • Verbs that show intellectual states, emotional or attitudes [believe, disagree, dislike, hate, imagine, intend, know, like, pity, prefer, realize, suppose, think, understand, want, wish, wonder]
     • I am knowing those formulas perfectly. [know]
   • Verbs that show sense perceptions [feel, hear, see, smell, taste]
     • The milk is smelling sour. [smells]

Mastering a language, whether it is your own or a second language, is an ongoing process. This unit is designed to help students of English as a second language (ESL) with the most frequent problems in writing grammatically correct, idiomatic English.

Verbs

Verbs formed with helping verbs (auxiliaries) can be troublesome for people whose first language is not English. This section provides additional information about these verb forms.

Use Modal Auxiliaries Correctly

Modals (M) are verbs that are used with a main verb (MV) to suggest various judgments by the writer or speaker about the action of the main verb.

You should see a doctor. [M] [MV]

[The modal should expresses the writer's feeling that the action is necessary or urgent.]

Modals express the following ideas about an action or event:

Probability - may, might, shall, will, would

Necessity or Obligation - must, should

Ability - can, could

Follow these six rules for writing verb phrases with modals.

1. Use the base form of the main verb after modals that express ideas about the present or the future.
   • The modals can, could, may, might, must, should, and will can be used to write about the present or the future.
   • Jeff can swimming very well. He should competes. [swim] [compete]
2. Do not omit shall or will to express the future, even in sentences with adverbs that indicate future time.
   • The coach _^ phone Bob soon. I am sure he _^ get to play first base this year. [will] [will]
   • You can also use going to or the present progressive to express the future.
3. Use only one modal with each main verb.
   • The following sentence expresses two ideas that are normally suggested by modals. However, the expression be able to must substitute for the modal can.
   • I might _^ can join the swimming team this year. [be able to]
   • The following phrases can be used with modals. Their meanings are similar to modals.
   • [have to] They may have to leave early.
   • [be obliged to] He might be obliged to pay that bill.
   • [be able to] I will be able to get to the theater by 8 p.m.
4. Use could, was able to, had to, was obliged to, might, and would plus the base form of the main verb to write about the past.
   • Two years ago he cannot read. [could not]
   • See Word Groups for how to use would and might in reported speech.
5. Use would plus the base form of the main verb to write about a habitual action in the past.
   • When I was a child, I will always try to go barefoot in summer. [would]
6. Use the base form of have or be when the modal is followed by a verb in the perfect or progressive form.
   • Ann should not had quit school. She must is looking for a job now. [have] [be]

Sentences can be classified either in terms of the kinds of clauses they contain (grammatically) or in terms of their purpose (rhetorically). Becoming aware of types of sentences allows you to vary your writing style to suit your audience, content, and purpose. You will find, too, that sentence variety holds a reader’s interest. How boring it is to read all simple sentences! In contrast, after many longer sentences, a punchy short sentence adds force to a key point.

Classification by Clause Structure

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence consists of one main clause and no subordinate clauses.

The mastery of basic reading skills is the most important goal in primary education. -Angelo Gonzalez

A simple sentence is not necessarily short, however, because the subject or the predicate-or both-may be compound or have many modifiers. The following example consists of one main clause; the subject is The Order of Canada and the verb is is. The rest of the sentence is made up of details.

The Order of Canada, an award instituted on July 1, 1967, to honour Canadians for outstanding achievement and service to their country and humanity at large, is often given to Canadians in the fields of the arts, sciences, or politics.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses and no subordinate clauses. The main clauses may be joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so, or yet) and a comma; by a semicolon; by a semicolon and a transitional word (however, nevertheless, therefore); or by a correlative conjunction such as either/or, both/and.

The Supreme Court of Canada is this country’s highest court of law, but there are other courts of law in the Canadian judicial system, because each level of court has a different jurisdiction under the Constitution.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

If you decide to take a trip to Quebec, I suggest that you visit the Eastern Townships.

Compound-complex Sentences 

A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more main clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Even though many cities and towns along the river were prepared, the flood waters were devastating, and many lives were lost.

Classification by Purpose

A declarative sentence makes a statement. In expository prose, most sentences are declarative.

Betsy bought new running shoes.

Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a question. It customarily ends with a question mark.

Did Sarah get a job as a lifeguard?

Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request, or offers advice. Usually you is the understood subject.

Buy a compact-disc player from a reputable dealer.

Please pass the salt and pepper.

Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence indicates intense emotion or excitement and ends with an exclamation point. Sometimes exclamations are not complete sentences.

What a movie!

The women’s basketball team had back-to-back undefeated seasons!

A noun clause can function any way that a noun does-as a subject, a predicate adjective, a predicate noun, a direct or an indirect object, an object complement, an object of a preposition, or an appositive (A). A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that, whoever, whomever, whatever) usually introduces a noun clause.

Whoever said so must be telling the truth. [S]

No one knows what his name is. [DO]

One condition of Bill’s employment was that he shave off his beard. [PN]

The news that both sides called a ceasefire took everyone by surprise. [A]

An adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. It is always introduced by a subordinating conjunction, such as if, after, when, though, since, where, while. An adverb clause answers the questions posed by the words when, where, why, or how.

The children looked for coins under the bleachers after the game was over.

An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) modifies a noun or pronoun. Usually it immediately follows the word or words modified and is introduced by a relative pronoun-who, whom, whose, which, that, whoever, whomever, or whatever - or by the subordinating conjunction when or where.

Ted’s old Volkswagen, which had a badly rusted body, still ran like a dream.

My grandmother remembers a time when Volkswagens were not on the market.

If the relative pronoun or subordinating conjunction (the subordinator) introducing an adjective clause does not function as the subject of the subordinate clause, you can omit it. In fact, omitting it picks up the pace of the sentence.

The Volkswagen that Janie saw at the car show was restored down to the smallest detail.

If the subordinator is the subject of the adjective clause, you can usually rewrite the sentence to eliminate unneeded words.

A statue of Louis Riel, which is made of marble, is in front of City Hall. [for marble could become]

A marble statue of Louis Riel, is in front of City Hall.

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.

A main clause, or independent clause, can stand alone as a complete sentence.

Janie bought Ted’s old Volkswagen.

It had a good engine but a rusted body.

A subordinate clause, or dependent clause, in contrast, cannot stand alone as a sentence because it is an incomplete thought.

When I cook, I use a lot of garlic.

If you don’t like garlic, you can substitute onions.

An absolute phrase is a noun or noun equivalent! followed in most cases by a participial phrase. An absolute phrase modifies a clause or sentence, not just a word as all other types of phrases do.

Joseph received many attractive job offers, his first concert having received rave reviews .

Her truck packed with all her belongings, Phoebe set out for the Yukon.

An appositive is a noun or noun equivalent. An appositive phrase is a noun or noun equivalent, together with any modifier(s), that directly follows (or precedes) another noun or noun equivalent. Unlike an adjective! which modifies a noun or noun equivalent! an appositive phrase identifies or explains. Most appositive phrases contain nonessential or parenthetical information and are! therefore! set off by commas.

The Special Olympics, games for disabled children, celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary in 1992.

A member of the Group of Seven, A.Y. Jackson painted rugged Canadian landscapes.

When a verb does not function as a verb in a sentence, it is called a verbal. Verbals are usually used in phrases. There are three kinds of verbal phrases: gerund, participial, and infinitive.

A gerund phrase consists of an -ing form of a verb (brewing, flying, joking, studying) with any modifier(s) and/ or object(s). A gerund phrase always functions as a noun in a sentence. It can, therefore, serve as a subject, a predicate noun, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition in a sentence.

All this fancy cooking takes time. [S]

Rick’s main recreation is lifting weights. [PN]

I believe in telling the truth. [OP]

A participial phrase consists of a present participle (-ing form of a verb) or past participle t-ed form of a verb) with its auxiliary, modifier(s), object(s), and complement(s). A participial phrase always functions as an adjective in a sentence.

The girl riding the mountain bike is my cousin. [ADJ]

Having finished his work for the day: the carpenter put his tools away and went home. [ADJ]

An infinitive phrase consists of the word to and the base form of the verb (stop, attempt, march, liberate) with its modifier(s) and object(s), if any. An infinitive phrase can function as an adjective! an adverb! or a noun in a sentence.

These are the shoes to wear for golf. [ADJ]

Sam couldn’t wait to eat his ice cream. [ADV]

Kristin and Benny love to rollerblade. [N]

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (a word such as to, with, after, on, in, by, or between) and its object, which is always a noun or pronoun. In sentences prepositional phrases usually function as adjectives or adverbs, but in some instances they can function as nouns.

The chapter on photosynthesis is fully illustrated. [ADJ]

Many Canadians go to Florida in the winter. [PN]

After two o’clock would be most convenient for me. [N]

The phrase is the most common word group we use in writing. A phrase, unlike a clause, does not have a subject and a predicate. A phrase is used as a single part of speech; that is, as a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb. There are four kinds of phrases: prepositional, verbal (including gerund, participle, and infinitive phrases), appositive, and absolute.

A complement is a word or word group that completes the sense of a verb and adds to the meaning of a subject. There are two types of complements: subject complements and object complements.

A subject complement (SC) is a noun which renames the subject (predicate noun) or an adjective which describes the subject (predicate adjective), and is used in a sentence with a linking verb.

Predicate noun

She is a doctor.

Predicate adjective

The Lake Superior region is rugged.

An object complement (OC) is an adjective in the predicate of a sentence which follows the direct object of a sentence and describes or renames the direct object.

Object complement

I consider Roberta Bondar to be a hero for our time.

A direct object (DO) is the noun, pronoun, or verbal that receives the action of the verb.

He kissed her.

An indirect object (IO) is the noun, pronoun, or verbal that tells to whom or for whom something is done.

The coach gave Melissa another chance.

To test whether a word is a direct or indirect object, insert to or for into the sentence. If the sentence makes sense, the word is an indirect object.

The coach gave another chance to Melissa.

The simple predicate of a sentence is made up of the verb and any helping verbs.

The ship was turning in the harbor.

The complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate and its modifiers and complements.

The ship was turning in the harbor.

The compound predicate is made up of two or more predicates that have the same subject.

Harold Ballard owned the Toronto Maple Leafs and invested in the Hamilton Tiger Cats.

The subject [S] of a sentence is the person or thing the sentence is about.

Fear eroded our confidence.

The simple subject is the noun or pronoun alone.

A Camara is my first choice.

The complete subject is the simple subject and all words associated with it.

A teal green Camara with camel interior is my first choice.

A compound subject is made up of two or more simple subjects.

Sticks and stones broke his bones.

A sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate and expresses a complete thought. A sentence has two basic parts, a subject (S) and a predicate (P). The predicate includes the verb (V), direct object (DO), indirect object (IO), predicate noun (PN), predicate adjective (PA), and object complement (OC].

Most English sentences follow one of these six patterns:

Speed kills. [S] [P [V]]

Birds eat berries. [S] [P [V] [DO]]

Dad wrote me a letter. [S] [P [V] [IO] [DO]]

She is a firefighter. [S] [P [V] [PN]]

The soldier is brave. [S] [P [V] [PA]]

The movie made us sad. [S] [P [V] [DO] [OC]]

An interjection (INTJ) is a word or phrase used to express emotion or attract attention. Interjections are independent units not grammatically connected to a sentence, and they are always followed by an exclamation point or a comma.

Hey! There’s a parade coming.

Oh well, maybe we can do better next time.

A conjunction (CONJ), like a preposition, shows the relationship between parts of a sentence. There are four kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, correlative and conjunctive adverbs.

A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank.

and but for nor or so yet

Leslie and Hal caught three rock bass, but they didn’t get any lake trout or pike.

A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause (SC) and connects it to a main clause (MC).

Unless we’re very lucky, we aren’t going to get there [SC] [MC]

before the concert starts. [SC]

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to connect words, phrases, clauses, and whole sentences.

both/and either/or not only /but also whether/or neither / nor not/but

We will be neither swayed nor delayed in our deliberations.

Conjunctive adverbs can function in two ways. First, they can serve as transitional expressions to connect units of thought.

Meanwhile, Todd was home making Lisa’s favorite dinner.

[Meanwhile connects Todd's actions to the previous statement.]

Conjunctive adverbs can also link main clauses (MC).

Lisa thought she’d surprise Todd by picking up a pizza for dinner; [MC]

meanwhile, Todd was home making her favourite-fried chicken. [MC]

Here is a list of common conjunctive adverbs.

A preposition (PREP) comes before a noun or pronoun to create a phrase that modifies another word in the sentence. The noun or the pronoun is called the object of the preposition (OP), and the phrase that is created is called a prepositional phrase. Prepositions show relationships between objects and ideas in a sentence.

She spilled the drink on him. [On him is the prepositional phrase]. [PREP] [OP]

Here is a list of the most common prepositions.

An adverb (ADV) modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Adverbs tell where, when, how, why, under what circumstances, and to what extent.

He drove nearby. [where]

He drove yesterday. [when]

He drove carefully. [how]

He drove because he had to. [why]

He drove while tired. [under what circumstances]

He drove quite carefully. [to what extent]

Adverbs are frequently made from adjectives by adding -ly (roughly, quickly), but not all adverbs end in -ly (first, not, very). Like adjectives, adverbs can also signify degrees of comparison (-er/-est, more/less, and most/least).

Adverbs of Frequently

never seldom often always sometimes even

Adverbs of Degree

even just only very extremely much surely more quite too

An adjective (ADJ) is a word that modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun. An adjective tells what kind, how many, or which one.

brass trombones [what kind] (N)

seventy-six trombones [how many] (N)

the older one [which one] (PRO)

Adjectives change form by adding -er or -est or are preceded by more or most to form the comparative and superlative.

Articles are considered to be adjectives. There are two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an).

You can send the parcel by Canada Post.

The signing of the Proclamation of 1763 was a historical event.

A pronoun (PRO) is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence. While there are vast numbers of nouns in English, there are considerably fewer pronouns. The noun that a pronoun replaces is called its antecedent. Pronouns are divided into the following groups.

Personal pronouns refer to specific persons, places, or things. The case of a personal pronoun refers to its function in a sentence.

Singular: I, you, he, she, him, her, it

Plural: you, we, they, them, us

Possessive pronouns show ownership by persons, places, or things.

Singular: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its

Plural: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs

Demonstrative pronouns point out the nouns that they replace.

this, that, these, those

Indefinite pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things.

all, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something, several, some

Interrogative pronouns introduce questions.

who(ever), whom(ever), whose, which(ever), what(ever)

Relative pronouns join a dependent clause to a noun.

who(ever), whom(ever), whose, which, that

Intensive and reflexive pronouns consist of a personal pronoun plus -self or -selves. An intensive pronoun refers back to a noun or another pronoun for emphasis (I did it myself); a reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject for emphasis or to complete the meaning (1 washed myself).

Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself

Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

A noun (N) is the name of a person, place, thing, quality, action, or idea.

George, Brazil, chair, beauty, flight, mercy

Most nouns are made plural or possessive or both by inflections, or changes in form.

Nouns can be divided into the following subclasses:

Proper nouns name specific people, places, and things and they are capitalized.

Shannon Tweed, South Africa, CN Tower

Common nouns name all nouns that are not proper nouns.

dog, paper, stoves

Abstract nouns name ideas, qualities, and other intangibles.

fear, freedom, neglect

Concrete nouns name tangible items. We know concrete nouns through the five senses.

bottle, telephone, letters

Collective nouns name groups. If a collective noun refers to the group as a whole, it takes a singular verb. If it refers to the individual members of that group, it takes a plural verb.

army, communities, herd

Count nouns name items that can be counted. Count nouns are frequently accompanied by an adjective indicating how many are referred to.

one dollar, twenty-four pills, a half-dozen sandwiches

Noncount nouns name items that come in quantities that are not capable of being counted. Frequently such nouns fall into certain categories.

Food: butter, flour, milk, sugar

Nonfood bulk materials: asphalt, gold, oxygen, snow

Abstractions: anger, love, pity, stress

A verb (V) expresses action (run, think) or a state of being (is, become, seem). A complete verb is composed of the main verb (MV) itself and any helping verbs (HV) that may be used with it. The most commonly used helping (auxiliary) verbs are the nine modals: may, might, shall, will, would, must, should, can, could. Modals express how the writer feels about an action. Modals express probability, necessity or obligation, or ability.

He may wash the dishes. [probability] [HV] [MV]

He should wash the dishes. [obligation] [HV] [MV]

He can wash the dishes. [ability] [HV] [MV]

Other helping verbs include the forms of have, be, do, used to, and ought to.

He is washing the dishes. [HV] [MV]

He did wash the dishes. [HV] [MV]

He used to wash the dishes. [HV] [MV]

Forms of verbs

All verbs have five forms, with the exception of be, which has eight forms. The first three of the five verb forms are called the principal parts of a verb.

The infinitive is made up of to and the base form (to see, to believe).

Most verbs in English are regular (talk, talked, talked), but a few are irregular (write, wrote, written).

Intransitive, Transitive, and Linking Verbs

A verb can be intransitive, transitive, or linking, depending on whether it takes an object or complement and, if so, what kind.

An intransitive verb has a subject (S) but does not require an object or complement to complete its meaning.

Nobody cares. [S] [V]

Transitional Verb

A transitive verb, as its name indicates, transfers its action from the subject to the object of the sentence. Transitive verbs always take a direct object (DO) and sometimes an indirect object (IO) to complete their meaning.

The waves lashed the shore. [S] [V] [DO]

Maria gave her mother flowers. [S] [V] [IO] [DO]

Linking Verb

A linking verb (LV) connects the subject to a predicate noun (PN), which renames the subject, or a predicate adjective (PA), which describes the subject.

Carol Shields is a writer. [S] [LV] [PN]

The grapefruit is sour. [S] [LV] [PA]

Common Linking Verbs

be (is, am, are, was, were) act
appear
become
grow
look
seem
feel
taste

Verbals

Sometimes a verb does not function as a verb in a sentence. In this case, it is called a verbal. There are three types of verbals: gerunds, participles (both past and present), and infinitives. Verbals are usually used in phrases.

Gerund

Swimming is my favourite sport. [N]

Present Participle

Swimming out to the raft, he got a cramp. [ADJ]

Past Participle

His cramped leg still aches. [ADJ]

Infinitive

Bob is learning to swim. [N]

Studying grammar will help you write better in two ways. First, because there is never simply one way to write a sentence, but many ways to present the same thought, knowing the parts of speech and how they function in sentences gives you the power to write exactly what you mean. Second, if you understand how words function in sentences, you are better able to identify why a sentence is confused, awkward, or not as clear as you had hoped. Studying grammar, then, allows you to look at sentences in a new light, both when you compose and when you revise.

Parts of Speech

Because English has more than 600 000 words, we group them in categories that share common characteristics in order to make it easier to talk about language. In grammar, these groupings are called parts of speech. English has eight parts of speech: verbs (V), nouns (N), pronouns (PRO), adjectives (ADD), adverbs (ADV), prepositions (PREP), conjunctions (COND), and interjections (INTD). A word may be a member of more than one category, however, depending on its use in a particular sentence:

She had a sound plan. [ADV]

They sailed across the sound. [N]

The driver will sound the car’s horn. [V]