With all the formatting capabilities available on even the most basic computer software, how do you decide what to do? The answer lies in the piece of writing itself. What is the subject matter? A research paper in the humanities, for example, must follow MLA guidelines (see FORMAT 2). How long is the paper? Would heads make it more readable? What is your purpose, and who is your audience? Is your topic very complicated? Would a list instead of an extended narrative paragraph help your reader understand a particular point better? Aside from these questions, there are, of course, such fundamental matters as setting margins and choosing a text typeface.

Basic Page

Formatting of any kind of writing begins with four basic decisions: margins, spacing, type style, and type size.

Margins & Spacing

Unless instructed otherwise leave a 2.5 cm (1 inch) margin at the top and bottom of the page and on the right and left sides. (Sometimes a preference to 3.8 cm [1½ inch] margin on the left.) Leave a ragged (uneven) margin on the right, because a justified (even) margin causes odd spacing between words and too many hyphenated words at the end of lines.

Most academic writing is double-spaced. Long research papers or reports may be line-and-a-half spaced so that they are readable but not any longer than necessary. Memos are usually single-spaced to be sure they fit on a single page, the preferred length in the business world.

Styles

Use familiar styles (Courier, Times Roman, Helvetica, Geneva) in a standard 10 or 12 point size. Do not use a script typeface or all italics or capitals for your main test; they are too difficult to read. If you have heads and subheads, use the same type style, though you may slightly increase the point size.

When you have made your basic page-design choices, you may want to print out a sample page. Adequate margins and a type style and size that do not call attention to themselves will transmit your message most effectively.

Improving Readability

Use the formatting capabilities of your computer to improve the readability of long and complex pieces of writing.

There is no substitute for good organization in a piece of writing, but in the case of long or complex research papers and reports, the use of heads and sometimes even subheads can enhance readability. Heads and subheads break an extended piece of writing into visibly distinct chunks, allowing the reader to enter and exit your train of thought, to stand back and see what has gone before and what is to come. Heads serve as a road map for reading.

Consistency is very important in using heads. First, you must be consistent in how you phrase headings. Most heads are a single word, usually a noun (Stress), or phrase (Types of Stress). Often they are gerund phrases (Relieving Stress). Heads may also be questions, which are then answered in that section (How can you relieve stress?). Whichever type of head you start with, however, you must continue using that type throughout your paper. If you are using both heads and subheads, you can make all your heads one type (say, single-word nouns) and all your subheads another type (perhaps gerund phrases).

You must also be consistent in the type style and size of your heads.

Suppose your text type is 10 point Helvetica. All your heads should also be Helvetica, but you might put your main heads in 14 point and your subheads in 12 point. You have some options in how you present your heads: boldface (heavier type), underlining, italics or bold italics, all capitals, and capitals and lower case.

Types of Stress

Types of Stress

Types of Stress

Types of Stress

TYPES OF STRESS

As with phrasing, you may choose one style for heads and another for subheads. Again, though, you must be consistent in whichever you choose.

Finally, you must be consistent in the placement of heads. By convention, main heads are usually centered and subheads are at the left margin.

Main Head

Subhead

Heads can improve the readability of a long or complex piece of writing, but they must be used judiciously. Too many heads and levels of subheads can be distracting or annoying. Every head should introduce a key concept, not a major point.

One way to make an extended piece of writing more manageable for your reader is to break it into sections with heads and subheads. Within sections, you may similarly be able to help your reader by pulling material out of the text narrative and presenting it as a more visually accessible list. Some types of material lend themselves to list-making more than others, of course. Steps in a process, categories, and how-to instructions naturally fit into a list.

Set off a list by indenting from the left margin. You can draw attention to the individual items in your list with graphic symbols, such as bullets

• solid dots,

• squares,

• circles

Graphic symbols are a good idea if the items in your list run over one line; in this case, it is also a good idea to indent the second line. See how indentation and graphics work in this example:

Experts say there are four major ways to relieve stress:

• consider whether you are accurately appraising the situation,
• use your problem-solving skills to take action,
• seek the support of family and friends, and
• pay attention to your health by eating right, getting enough exercise, and going to bed at a regular time.

This example also shows that you should introduce a list with a colon, put a comma (or semi-colon) after each item, and end with a period. Note, too, that the phrasing should be parallel. In this list, every item begins with a verb: consider, use, seek, pay. Do not overuse lists. As with heads, they are only effective if used judiciously.

The following six rules list common verbs and phrases associated with each of these verbals. They also give help in correctly using infinitives and gerunds as objects.

1. Use an infinitive with to after these common verbs:
   

   agree	come	have	mean	refuse
   arrange	decide	hope	offer	wait
   bed	deserve	intend	plan	want
   claim	expect	manage	promise	wish

   Keith refused participating in the discussion. [to participate]

2. Learn which verbs are followed by a noun or pronoun object and an infinitive with to.Some verbs are followed by two objects-a noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb and then the infinitive. The following verbs have a noun or pronoun object as well as an infinitive object:
   

   advise	convince	invite	persuade	tell
   allow	forbid	order	remind	urge
   cause	instruct	permit	require	warm

   We persuaded_^to come with us. [our neighbors]

   The Embassy invited_^to attend a reception in the Princess’s honor. [us]

   The following verbs may either take a noun or pronoun object or be followed directly by an infinitive:

   allow *	cause	force	help	want
   ask	expect	get	need	would like

   I would like dessert.

   I would like it.

   I would like to go.

   Exception: When allow does not have a noun or pronoun object, it is followed by a gerund.

   Many companies no longer allow smoking on their premises.

3. Use let, make, and have correctly.When let means “allow,” make means “force,” and have means “cause,” they are followed by a noun or pronoun object (0) and the infinitive without to.

   Customs officials let Martha pass through without inspecting her luggage. [O]

   They did not make her show them her briefcase, either. [O]

   Tom had the barber cut his hair much shorter this time. [O]

4. Use a gerund after the following verbs:
   

   admit	delay	imagine	practice	risk
   allow *	deny	keep	prevent	stop
   appreciate	discuss	mind	regret	suggest
   avoid	enjoy	miss	remember	toerate
   consider	finish	postpone	resist

   I enjoyed to meet your family. [meeting]

   The government no longer allows to smoke in government offices. [smoking]

   *Note: Allow is followed by an infinitive when it has a noun or pronoun object.

   I don’t allow anyone smoking in the house. [to smoke]

5. Use a gerund after certain verbs plus a preposition.The following phrases are frequently followed by gerunds:
   

   accuse someone of	be responsible for	feel like
   apologize to	be tired of	insist on
   approve of	be used to	look forward to
   be afraid of	believe in	object to
   be capable of	depend on	talk about
   be interested in	dream of	think about

   Sue is responsible for preparing the financial data.

6. Use either an infinitive or a gerund after the following verbs:
   

   begin *	hate	love	start *
   continue	like	prefer

   The store cannot continue to raise prices.

   The store cannot continue raising prices.

   Note: When begin and start are used in the progressive tenses, they can only be followed by an infinitive.

   Lani is beginning_^enjoying her dance class. [to enjoy]

   After some verbs, such as remember, stop, and try, the infinitive and the gerund have different meanings.

   Sid remembers going to the bank on Friday.

   [Sid remembers that he went to the bank last Friday.]

   Sid remembers to go to the bank on Friday.

   [He remembers to go to the bank every Friday.]

let down [disappoint]

let out [free]

These combinations of verb + particle are idiomatic; that is, the separate meanings of the verb and the particle do not predict their meaning when they are combined into a two-word verb.

Like other verbs, two-word verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

Transitive come across [find], let down [disappoint], tell off [rebuke]

Intransitive catch on [understand], crop up [occur], give in [yield]

Transitive two-word verbs are either inseparable or separable. The verb and particle of inseparable two-word verbs are never separated by the direct object. However, the verb and particle of separable two-word verbs are sometimes separated by the direct object. There is no way of telling which two-word verbs are inseparable and which are separable except by noting how a writer handles the object of these verbs. You must, therefore, note this distinction when you learn each new two-word verb.

Follow these four rules in placing the direct object of transitive two-word verbs.

1. Do not separate the verb and particle of inseparable two-word verbs. Place the noun or pronoun after the particle.Lucy does not take after her older sister. [DO]

   Lucy does not take after her. [DO]

2. When the object of a separable two-word verb is a noun, place it either between the main verb and the particle or after the particle.We turned the offer down. [DO]

   We turned down the offer. [DO]

3. When the object of a separable two-word verb is a pronoun, place the object only between the verb and the particle.We turned it down because it came too late. [DO]
4. Learn some common separable and inseparable transitive two-word verbs.
   

   Separable

   fill out an application/fill it out
   give up smoking/give it up
   look up some words/look them up
   put out a fire/ put it out
   tear down a house / tear one down
   throw away the paper / throw it away
   try on some clothes / try some on
   turn down the TV / turn it down
   turn up the volume/turn it up

   Inseparable

   call on a student/ call on her
   come across an article / come across it
   get over a cold/get over it
   hear from an old friend/hear from him
   look after his mother / look after her
   look through an encyclopedia/look through it
   pick on someone smaller / pick on someone
   run into a neighbour / run into her
   take after a grandparent/ take after him

Diamonds and gold are mined in South Africa. [S] [V]

Keep the following three points in mind to form the passive voice correctly.

1. Use the past participle, not the base form or past tense, to form the passive voice.Pay particular attention to past participles of irregular verbs.A lot of electronic parts are manufacture in Southeast Asia. [manufactured]

   In my family, clothing was wore by all three children and then gave to the church. [worn] [given]

2. Identify the subject and make sure the helping verb be agrees with it. The sea otter, an endangered species, are native to the Pacific coast. [is][The subject, sea otter, is singular, even though the appositive, species, sounds plural.]
3. Use only transitive verbs in the passive voice. A transitive verb, unlike an intransitive one, always takes a direct object (DO).TransitiveJacques Villeneuve drove the car to victory in the Indy 500. [S] [V] [DO]

   [The direct object, car, receives the action of the verb drove.]

   Intransitive

   Sylvia seems forgetful lately. [V]

   [The verb seems has no direct object. Forgetful is a predicate adjective that describes the subject, Sylvia.]

   In the passive voice, the object of the action becomes the grammatical subject of the sentence.

   The car was driven to victory in the Indy 500 by Jacques Villeneuve. [S] [V]

   Since intransitive verbs have no direct object, you cannot form the passive voice with them. If you are not sure whether a verb is transitive, check your dictionary.

Form the Prefect Tenses Correctly

The perfect tenses of a verb are created by combining a form of have with the past participle of the main verb. (Read about the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses)

Present Prefect

Luis has grown fast this year.

Past Prefect

We already had started dinner when the Smiths arrived.

Future Prefect

Wang will have finished her speech by 8 p.m.

When you use the perfect tenses, remember these two points about the helping verb and the main verb.

1. Make sure the present tense of the helping verb have agrees with its subject.
   • Richard have been a member of the Young Liberals Club for ten years. [has]
   • They has elected her president three times. [have]
2. Use the past participle, not the past tense, to form the perfect tenses.
   • Review the list of the principal parts of verbs.
   • Marie has broke several world records for speed skating. [broken]
   • When I met Harold, he had already began growing bald. [begun]

Form and Use the Progressive Tenses Correctly

The progressive tenses consist of a form of the helping verb be (am, is, are, was, were, being, be, or been) plus the present participle of the main verb.

Present Progressive

Haroon is building a new house.

Past Progressive

Sheila was washing her hair at midnight.

Future Progressive

We will be traveling to Alberta soon.

Some verbs, such as linking verbs, are typically not used in the progressive. The following four points will help you form the progressive tenses correctly and identify verbs not used in the progressive.

1. Use a form of be with the progressive.
   • Kate _^ working in the lab all afternoon today. [is]
   • Several of us _^ working on the same project. [are]
2. Make sure the helping verb be agrees with its subject.
   • The librarians was helping Teresa find books for her report. [were]
   • The number of work-study scholarships are increasing. [is]
   • (Review subject-verb agreement in EDIT 1.)
3. Use the helping verb have in the present perfect progressive.
   • Ari _^ been cooking all day for the party. [has]
   • Elliot and Craig _^ been restoring an old Chevy on weekends. [have]
4. Learn which verbs are usually not used in the progressive.
   • Certain verbs are typically not used in the progressive tenses. These verbs fall into the following categories:
   • Linking Verbs and Verbs that indicate qualities or states of being [appear, be, become, have, seem]
     • Cheng was seeming sick all morning. [seemed]
   • Verbs that show intellectual states, emotional or attitudes [believe, disagree, dislike, hate, imagine, intend, know, like, pity, prefer, realize, suppose, think, understand, want, wish, wonder]
     • I am knowing those formulas perfectly. [know]
   • Verbs that show sense perceptions [feel, hear, see, smell, taste]
     • The milk is smelling sour. [smells]

Verbs

Verbs formed with helping verbs (auxiliaries) can be troublesome for people whose first language is not English. This section provides additional information about these verb forms.

Use Modal Auxiliaries Correctly

Modals (M) are verbs that are used with a main verb (MV) to suggest various judgments by the writer or speaker about the action of the main verb.

You should see a doctor. [M] [MV]

[The modal should expresses the writer’s feeling that the action is necessary or urgent.]

Modals express the following ideas about an action or event:

Probability - may, might, shall, will, would

Necessity or Obligation - must, should

Ability - can, could

Follow these six rules for writing verb phrases with modals.

1. Use the base form of the main verb after modals that express ideas about the present or the future.
   • The modals can, could, may, might, must, should, and will can be used to write about the present or the future.
   • Jeff can swimming very well. He should competes. [swim] [compete]
2. Do not omit shall or will to express the future, even in sentences with adverbs that indicate future time.
   • The coach _^ phone Bob soon. I am sure he _^ get to play first base this year. [will] [will]
   • You can also use going to or the present progressive to express the future.
3. Use only one modal with each main verb.
   • The following sentence expresses two ideas that are normally suggested by modals. However, the expression be able to must substitute for the modal can.
   • I might _^ can join the swimming team this year. [be able to]
   • The following phrases can be used with modals. Their meanings are similar to modals.
   • [have to] They may have to leave early.
   • [be obliged to] He might be obliged to pay that bill.
   • [be able to] I will be able to get to the theater by 8 p.m.
4. Use could, was able to, had to, was obliged to, might, and would plus the base form of the main verb to write about the past.
   • Two years ago he cannot read. [could not]
   • See Word Groups for how to use would and might in reported speech.
5. Use would plus the base form of the main verb to write about a habitual action in the past.
   • When I was a child, I will always try to go barefoot in summer. [would]
6. Use the base form of have or be when the modal is followed by a verb in the perfect or progressive form.
   • Ann should not had quit school. She must is looking for a job now. [have] [be]

Classification by Clause Structure

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence consists of one main clause and no subordinate clauses.

The mastery of basic reading skills is the most important goal in primary education. -Angelo Gonzalez

A simple sentence is not necessarily short, however, because the subject or the predicate-or both-may be compound or have many modifiers. The following example consists of one main clause; the subject is The Order of Canada and the verb is is. The rest of the sentence is made up of details.

The Order of Canada, an award instituted on July 1, 1967, to honour Canadians for outstanding achievement and service to their country and humanity at large, is often given to Canadians in the fields of the arts, sciences, or politics.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses and no subordinate clauses. The main clauses may be joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so, or yet) and a comma; by a semicolon; by a semicolon and a transitional word (however, nevertheless, therefore); or by a correlative conjunction such as either/or, both/and.

The Supreme Court of Canada is this country’s highest court of law, but there are other courts of law in the Canadian judicial system, because each level of court has a different jurisdiction under the Constitution.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

If you decide to take a trip to Quebec, I suggest that you visit the Eastern Townships.

Compound-complex Sentences 

A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more main clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Even though many cities and towns along the river were prepared, the flood waters were devastating, and many lives were lost.

Classification by Purpose

A declarative sentence makes a statement. In expository prose, most sentences are declarative.

Betsy bought new running shoes.

Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a question. It customarily ends with a question mark.

Did Sarah get a job as a lifeguard?

Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request, or offers advice. Usually you is the understood subject.

Buy a compact-disc player from a reputable dealer.

Please pass the salt and pepper.

Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence indicates intense emotion or excitement and ends with an exclamation point. Sometimes exclamations are not complete sentences.

What a movie!

The women’s basketball team had back-to-back undefeated seasons!

Whoever said so must be telling the truth. [S]

No one knows what his name is. [DO]

One condition of Bill’s employment was that he shave off his beard. [PN]

The news that both sides called a ceasefire took everyone by surprise. [A]

The children looked for coins under the bleachers after the game was over.

Ted’s old Volkswagen, which had a badly rusted body, still ran like a dream.

My grandmother remembers a time when Volkswagens were not on the market.

If the relative pronoun or subordinating conjunction (the subordinator) introducing an adjective clause does not function as the subject of the subordinate clause, you can omit it. In fact, omitting it picks up the pace of the sentence.

The Volkswagen that Janie saw at the car show was restored down to the smallest detail.

If the subordinator is the subject of the adjective clause, you can usually rewrite the sentence to eliminate unneeded words.

A statue of Louis Riel, which is made of marble, is in front of City Hall. [for marble could become]

A marble statue of Louis Riel, is in front of City Hall.